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Iuav : 142
foto di Olga Maleeva
M o s c a e l a q u a l i tà
dell’architetturA
racconti di un seminario
giornale edito a seguito del seminario Introduzione te di tecnologie adatte a meglio sod- de città capitale) cerca con difficoltà generosa di suggestioni che gli italiani
Mosca e la qualità dell’architettura Aldo Norsa disfare la sequenza fondamentale “esi- una strada nuova. Prima di tutto una (architetti) hanno portato nel tempo
9 dicembre 2013, Venezia genze-requisiti-specifiche-prestazioni”. strada originale. Con cadute non in- (Domenico Trezzini, Bartolomeo Fran-
a cura di Perché una cattedra di tecnologia Nel caso moscovita poi l’accelerazio- differenti (favorite dal far west delle cesco Rastrelli, Antonio Rinaldi, Carlo
Elena Giacomello e Martina Belmonte dell’architettura si interessa alla qua- ne impressa al progresso tecnico (non approvazioni urbanistiche e degli ar- Rossi,…). Forti di una ben assimilata
lità dell’architettura stessa e per giun- necessariamente tecnologico) nell’ul- ricchimenti facili) ma anche con esiti cultura classica, non c’è dubbio, nella
Università Iuav di Venezia ta studiata in un contesto urbano/ timo secolo (il 1914 è per la Russia, interessanti e diversi. composizione degli edifici e delle loro
Santa Croce 191 Tolentini metropolitano? E perché in una città con l’entrata in guerra, la fine di un Tutto questo tenta di sbozzare il re- parti, ma altrettanto ferrati nelle tec-
30135 Venezia
www.iuav.it
eccentrica rispetto all’Europa (forse isolamento e di un torpore millenari) soconto di un seminario svoltosi allo nologie che li rendevano salubri e sicu-
©Iuav 2014
un po’ meno alla Venezia del “passag- ha comportato molte sperimentazio- Iuav il 9 dicembre 2013 dal titolo “Mo- ri. E, per guidare il loro cammino, ecco
gio a nordest”) ma invece centrale a ni progettuali di assoluto rilievo. Non sca e la qualità dell’architettura”, con gli scritti di Renzo Dubbini (direttore
Iuav giornale dell’università un’entità geografica più evocata che sempre – è vero – con la dovuta conte- la preziosa collaborazione di Elena del DACC, Dipartimento di Architet-
iscritto al n. 1391 esperita: l’Eurasia? Strategico crocevia stualizzazione, non sempre con l’auspi- Giacomello, dottoressa di ricerca allo tura Costruzione Conservazione), Irina
del registro stampa
tribunale di Venezia
tra due dei tre più vecchi Continenti. cata cultura, ma con la possanza di un Iuav. Esperti italiani e russi dialogano Korobina (direttrice del Museo Stata-
a cura del Forse perché – e qui sovviene la locu- popolo che, collettivamente, ha voluto sul tema nelle pagine che seguono (in le di Architettura Alexey Shchusev di
servizio comunicazione zione “cultura tecnologica della pro- cambiare il corso della sua storia e di- italiano e in inglese). Mosca), Alessandro De Magistris (pro-
comesta@iuav.it gettazione” cara a Giuseppe Ciribini, ventare “moderno”. Come raccomandato agli studenti a fessore ordinario di Storia dell’archi-
ISSN 2038-7814 padre della disciplina – non esiste Oggi, erede di una modernizzazione a conclusione del seminario stesso è au- tettura), Elisabetta Fabbri (architetto),
discorso sulla tecnica che non sia ra- tappe forzate e talvolta di un giganti- spicabile che sempre più giovani ita- Umberto Zanetti (ingegnere, fondato-
direttore
Amerigo Restucci dicato nella cultura dei luoghi e dei smo e di un titanismo vuoti di senso, liani imparino il russo e vadano a lavo- re di ZDA), Sergey Nikitin (fondatore
significati che vi sono associati. l’architettura moscovita (russa meno rare lì, non solo come sbocco attraente di Bureau MosKultProg), Gianpaolo
stampa Quindi ogni grande città, ogni area perché quella recupera localismi e a situazioni professionali qui impan- Forese e Ferruccio Tasinato (fondatori
Grafiche Veneziane, Venezia (VE) metropolitana è laboratorio delle scel- vernacolarismi impossibili nella gran- tanate ma anche come riproposizione di +39 Architects).
Iuav : 142 2
Metamorfosi e trasformazioni come paradigma di una città euro- Recent History of Moscow tations. Lenin had moved the Soviet rental basis. Residential districts for
di una capitale pea ai limiti di una linea di frontiera. Irina Korobina government to Moscow, and in 1918 workers began to appear, usually in
Renzo Dubbini Walter Benjamin, negli anni Venti, nel the city became the capital of Russia the vicinity of factories. At the same
suo “Immagini di città”, proponeva di Moscow today is a huge megalopo- and in 1922 of the USSR – the count- time, new and experimental types of
Mosca, in quanto terreno di speri- valutarne i caratteri per analogia. Egli lis which ranks one of the first in the ry’s political, industrial, and cultural housing and construction technology
mentazione architettonica, è un caso sosteneva: “è Berlino che si impara a world in terms of pace of urbanization. centre. This had implications for the were developed. The best architects
complesso e di grande interesse. In un conoscere attraverso Mosca“. Ma Mo- The city is, you might say, making up way in which Moscow changed and designed “commune houses“. These
vasto panorama di temi, emergono sca – sottolineava – ha una vitalità for what it missed out on under So- developed, but also for the ideological were idealistic ways of organizing the
rotture e continuità rispetto alle altre che Berlino non possiede. È elegante, viet rule, when it was severely reined content of its architecture. lives of workers with an emphasis on
capitali europee e alla tradizione. lussuosa, ordinata, Berlino, ma è una in by socialist economics and urban- The 1920s saw the appearance of a communal living and collective recre-
Dalla città ancora centrica, che resiste città “vuota“! Soprattutto le strade planning concepts that, enshrined in whole series of projects aimed at total- ation. Construction costs were to be
nella sua unità fino agli anni Trenta, si sono deserte. A Mosca invece trionfa law, dictated to it what form it should ly reconstructing Moscow in order to reduced by minimizing the amount
sostituisce una città in forte espansio- l’esuberanza: “la merce trabocca dap- take. Today, by contrast, everything – turn it into the ideal communist city. of space allocated to each member of
ne che pone questioni fortemente lega- pertutto fuori dalle case“. È questo il or almost everything – is determined Ideas for communist forms of settle- the house. Considerable effort went
te allo sviluppo sociale, ai programmi carattere marcato di una città di tra- by market forces. Moscow has become ment were based on a faith in the po- into designing residential units that
architettonici, a una razionalizzazione dizione commerciale, lo spirito della a gigantic building site; vacant land wer of technical science and rational would make optimum use of minimal
dei costi di produzione dell’edilizia. città mercantile orientale. is subject to intensive development; organization of space. Their aim was to amounts of space. Subsequently these
Nel suo variegato panorama il ferro e Dopo la rivoluzione, l’edilizia tradi- industrial zones and the first genera- radically change the existing situation experiments shaped the development
il vetro convivono con la vecchia edili- zionale convive con le architetture tion of Soviet standard-type housing and so transform Moscow into the “ca- of house building all over the world.
zia in legno, ma la questione primaria geometriche dell’avanguardia, di Mel- are being radically reconstructed; pital city of the victorious Proletariat“. One of the instruments used in orga-
è connessa al tema di come si possa- nikov, Lubetkin, Le Corbusier. La com- and work is going ahead on “grand As early as 1918, this policy had produ- nizing people’s lives was construction
no affrontare i programmi dei grandi petizione si scatena nelle nuove città projects“ intended to mark the birth of ced an example of a qualitatively new of public housing and provision of
edifici (dai magazzini commerciali, industriali, ispirate dai modelli ame- a new capitalist capital city. Moscow is approach to urban development. services that freed up workers’ time
alle grandi unità abitative, agli edifici ricani (Detroit e il fordismo), quanto reaching upwards. A “ring of skyscra- B.Sakkulin’s enfluentogram was Rus- for work and self-education. This was
istituzionali) e allo “zoning“, al pari di nei grattacieli di Mosca: la New York pers“, named by journalists “the 22 si- sia’s first regional urban-planning the age that saw the appearance of
altre realtà occidentali. del socialismo realizzato, descritta da sters“, is already on architects’ drawing project based on group socialist set- kindergartens, crèches, and a new type
Oggi uno dei problemi più rilevanti ri- un critico attento e colto come Robert boards, and Norman Foster’s Russia tlement. The “Large Moscow“ project of catering service, the kitchen factory,
guarda la gestione e la selezione della Byron nel suo reportage del 1931-1932. Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Euro- developed by a team led by Sergey which could serve up to 1500 persons
qualità, e al tempo stesso il manteni- Ma la diversità è evidente, nonostan- pe, is currently awaiting planning per- Shestakov in 1926 proposed enlarging simultaneously. At the same time,
mento di una identità segnata da di- te l’ambiguità ideologica. I grattacieli mission. The intensive urbanization of the capital and surrounding it with architects tackled the task of organi-
namiche sempre più globalizzate. modernisti di Mosca sono i simboli del- Moscow Suburb leads to actual sprawl two rings of satellite cities. zing workers’ recreation. The country
È qui interessante porci la domanda la burocrazia staliniana, di un linguag- of the city environment behind the ad- The rapid development of transport, switched to a 7-hour working day and
se l’architettura sia in grado ancora di gio rigido e piatto che rimarrà in auge ministrative board of the city Moscow the beginning of mass construction of passive leisure became increasingly
elaborare un linguaggio per ogni spe- fino agli anni Cinquanta e Sessanta, Ring Road. A fifth ring road is now in housing, and the use of new construc- unpopular. Theatres and concert halls
cifica circostanza, sintesi di forma e di finché esigenze funzionali non impor- planning. This will link Moscow’s satel- tions and materials opened up endless were now seen as remnants of the old
tecnica. rano una svolta. La crescita demogra- lite towns – a hint of how the Russian opportunities for urban planners. The bourgeois way of life. For all-round de-
Spesso i grandi progetti per le città fica e dimensionale porrà problemi capital will expand in the future. 1932 competition for proposals for the velopment of people’s personalities,
globali si trasformano in occasioni di non risolvibili con logiche circoscritte Internationally, Moscow is a mighty la- General Plan for Moscow was a re- a new type of building, the worker’s
risonanza ideologica, casi-modello, a singoli edifici. La rete metropolitana, boratory for experimentation in social sponse to a profound public need in club, was invented. This was intended
quasi nello spirito delle Esposizioni il sistema dei trasporti, lo sviluppo dei and economic policy and urban plan- the country of the Soviets, and it gave to provide a full range of diverse types
universali. Ogni occasione viene fatta quartieri residenziali divengono i vin- ning. As a free market forms and capi- rise to some extremely radical ideas. of active cultural activity capable of
apparire come fatto esemplare, che coli reali con i quali fare i conti. talism gathers pace, a new metropolis Architect Nikolay Ladovsky proposed comprehensively developing the per-
difficilmente viene collegato a un’ana- Certo, la città ha bisogno dei suoi sim- of a kind never seen before is being interrupting the annular structure in sonality. The “new type of club“ be-
lisi contestuale. Il contesto è ritenuto boli e di un riordino funzionale. E la born. one spot and giving Moscow the free- came a subject for extensive public
un impaccio e il tema analitico è pre- Russia Tower di Foster è in un certo Following the October Revolution of dom to grow, thus turning the city into debate. A radical expression of this
feribilmente trascurato, ritenuto poco senso l’equivalente della Scheggia di 1917 Moscow became the capital of a parabola. The project by the BOPRA discussion was the project of Ivan Leo-
pragmatico o irrealistico. Renzo Piano a Londra. I grandi edifici the young Soviet state, taking upon team was a attempt to fit a radial/ nidov, who proposed a “system for or-
Gli studi di Manfredo Tafuri, Vieri Qui- però in genere si sovrappongono alla itself the role of ideological centre annular city into a rectangular grid ganizing cultural activities for workers“
lici, Jean-Louis Cohen, e molti altri, città; possono funzionare come segna- and laboratory for experiments in the of main roads. Le Corbusier proposed as a new life style. Sport had always
hanno dimostrato una indiscutibile li nel paesaggio urbano, ma spesso formation of a new society and the building a new Moscow with an ortho- been an activity for the aristocracy and
utilità nell’ambito di analisi storiche, rimangono isolati, dispositivi che fun- quest for new forms of settlement. It gonal layout instead of the existing the bourgeoisie; now a state program-
ma richiederebbero un aggiornamen- zionano in autonomia. In questo senso was this period that defined the ide- irregular city. Hans Meyer (Germany) me for bringing it to the Soviet masses
to e un cambiamento di prospettiva, anche a Mosca si registra il fenomeno al goal as that of building the “bright designed a system of 10 specialized was announced. The first Soviet sports
troppo legati all’evoluzione parallela osservato da Edward Glaeser nel suo future“, which in its turn determined satellite cities arranged around Mo- stadiums were built.
dell’ideologia socialista, mentre oggi recente libro “Il trionfo della città”. the direction that would be taken by scow as their nucleus. His compatriot, In architecture Constructivism came to
l’analisi andrebbe spostata sul terreno Questi grandi interventi sono segni urban planning over this entire period. architect Kurt Meyer, proposed turning the fore. This style’s victory in a fier-
del formarsi di specifiche professiona- dinamici, di capacità di investimento, The 20th century saw a succession of Moscow into a stellar city that would ce battle with traditional architecture
lità, sulle tecnologie, sulle ragioni di ma la vera sfida è la ricostruzione del concepts for building “New Moscow“ – represent democratic symbolism. The was marked by the competition to de-
un pragmatismo che sembrerebbe of- tessuto sociale e del contesto storico whether they were ideas by individual competition intensified the debate sign the Palace of Labour in Moscow,
frire qualsiasi opportunità al mercato. delle città. La città è il grande elemen- architects or plans developed over ye- that developed during the First Five- in which first place went to a project
La nuova architettura in Russia è aper- to attrattivo e dinamico del nostro ars by planning institutions. Year Plan between urbanists and di- by the Vesnin brothers. Pride in the
ta alle sfide internazionali, accoglie le tempo, tuttavia la tecnologia non può Historical discourse allows us to iden- surbanists. revolutionary transformation of socie-
archistar e affida loro ambiziosi pro- essere il solo fattore del suo sviluppo. tify at least three stages in the deve- The best architects of the age deve- ty required the construction of presti-
grammi, sebbene i legami con il passa- Serve la capacità di incrociarla con la lopment of pre-perestroika Moscow, loped utopian planning projects for gious buildings that would be seen as
to non siano stati cancellati. cultura. Occorre sviluppare di pari pas- each of which is based on radically turning Moscow into an ideal garden symbolically affirming the new socia-
L’elaborazione del linguaggio è certo so le funzioni e il significato culturale different planning approaches aimed city. Such were the projects for a “gre- list values. Avant-garde experiments
vincolata ai caratteri delle città, alla delle città. Come dice Glaeser, dob- at transforming the capital into an en city“ drawn up in 1930 by Moysey of this time were aimed not only at
loro cultura e posizione geografica. E biamo per lo meno garantire, quale “ideal city“. Ginzburg, Nikolay Ladovsky, and Kon- resolving social problems, but also at
dunque alla loro formazione storica: ai base del processo che va sviluppato, il stantin Mel’nikov. In reality, though, providing symbols of the construction
fattori che ne hanno determinato for- “terreno livellato“ (è una metafora) sul New Moscow 1 Moscow was undergoing a period of of a new world. Tatlin’s Tower, a design
me ed usi e di cui si è costituita una quale democraticamente è possibile The first post-revolutionary projects for active urbanization. The first Soviet inspired by the First Congress of the
percezione. Pietroburgo è la città degli realizzare i nostri ideali. Va ricercato ciò radical reorganization of Moscow un- factories and infrastructure were being Third Communist Internationale (held
Zar, la città di nuova fondazione, la che, in altro modo, David Chipperfield der communism, 1918 – early 1930s built in Moscow and the country out- in Moscow in 1919) became a symbol
città europea dal linguaggio classico, definiva, nella Biennale Architettura The technical and scientific revolution side. Public transport was also introdu- of the age, while Shabolov’s Radio
dagli spazi ampi, visivamente ordina- del 2012, il common ground necessario and the social shocks at the beginning ced in the form of regular buses and Tower symbolized Soviet progress in
ti. Mosca è la città delle stratificazioni a progettare un’architettura dal forte of the 20th century led to a radical the first taxis. science and technology (due to the
storiche, che per questo accoglie più senso civico. Dobbiamo costruire su transformation of all aspects of life The housing problem was so urgent difficult economic situation following
facilmente la modernità e anche oggi un terreno culturale che sia favorevole in Russia. The revolution of 1917 con- that it had to be prioritized. In 1918 the Revolution, it was built to only half
è più disponibile a nuovi sviluppi. Co- alla creazione e al mantenimento delle jured up social-economic and political private ownership of real estate was its planned height). The Soviet autho-
munque non oltre alcuni limiti! nostre realizzazioni. È questo un impe- utopias that affected all fields of life, annulled. Workers and soldiers and rities were intent on displaying to both
È emblematico il recente episodio che gno che non possiamo assolutamente resulting in the banning of private ow- their families were given rooms in their own citizens and the rest of the
riguarda la Piazza Rossa. L’enorme eludere. nership of land and real estate, manu- large apartments that had previously world the first successes and achie-
baule promozionale di Louis Vuitton facturing plant, natural resources, etc., been owned by the bourgeoisie (the- vements of their rule. The middle of
è stato rimosso per ordine di Putin: and the building of a new communist se came to be known as “communal the 1920s saw the construction of the
troppo grande, oscurava la chiesa e society and the world’s first Soviet sta- apartments“). In the 1920s a start National Agricultural and Craft/Indu-
il mausoleo di Lenin, i simboli di una te. The urban-planning utopias of this was made on a state programme for strial Exhibition on the site of an old
tradizione nazionale ancora irrinuncia- time were the result of social, econo- construction of housing; apartments rubbish tip (the grounds of the exhibi-
bili. Possiamo pensare a Mosca anche mic, and political ideals and expec- were given to those in need on a tion later became the Park of Culture
Iuav : 142 3
and Recreation). Russia’s first planeta- of the socialist system and the pro- tories built at this time included a car This approach, full of an optimistic of construction of new housing, shops,
rium, crowned by the largest dome in sperity and might of the USSR. “New factory, Kalibr, and Frezer. Extensive faith in the power of technology and and cultural and public facilities. Bu-
Europe, displayed the achievements of Moscow 2” began with the pursuit industrial zones took shape in Moscow bolstered by a strengthening of the ildings employed standard-type plans
Soviet science and “the expansion of of a strict state policy that called for Region. authority of Soviet science (typical of and a shared inventory of reinforced-
the world revolution into the cosmos“. supervision of all fields of life, inclu- In terms of architecture and art, “New this age of cosmic exploration), was concrete parts. All new districts were
The state’s campaign against religion, ding art and architecture. As the Party Moscow 2” embodied a Grand Style reflected in the work of a new genera- almost identical to one another. Achie-
which led to the demolition of many of and the Soviet Government set course based on assimilation of Classical he- tion of architects. New Element of Set- vements in urban development were
Moscow’s churches, also showed itself for a revival of Classical heritage, the ritage. The unique public buildings of tlement (NER), a team led by Aleksey assessed on the basis of quantitative
in the quest for a new concept of sa- advances made by the Avant-garde the time may be read as symbols. Their Gutnov, devised projects that were a characteristics. The housing regula-
credness to take the place of the old. were depicted as a wrong turning. purpose was to broadcast to the entire kind of Soviet response to the interna- tions allocated nine square metres of
Lenin’s plan for monumental propa- In spite of the lack of a developed world images of imperial might, world tional radical movement. living space to each person. In the
ganda envisaged the creation of a cult construction industry and the limited leadership, everlastingness, and im- The official plan for the reconstruc- 1960s more than five million square
of new heroes – leaders of the world funding available, the new general mortality. The University was built as tion of Moscow over the period 1951- metres of housing came on line very
revolution, politicians, and important plan was implemented with success. a Temple of Science; the Lenin Library 1960s, developed by a team led by year. By the 1980s more than 90% of
figures in science and culture. Extreme Moscow acquired a new face and the as a sanctuary of world knowledge; D.Chegulin, envisaged switching to construction of residential and social
forms of expression of the new con- grandeur of a capital city. There was a and the Moskva Hotel as a symbol of construction of fully prefabricated buildings was employing pre-fabrica-
cept of sacredness were the construc- very rapid improvement in the count- hospitality on a capital scale. Here the houses. In Moscow standard plans we- ted structures. The height of buildings
tion of Moscow’s first crematorium, ry’s infrastructure: construction of the emphasis was on form; functionality re devised for use in mass construction grew constantly – from five-storey
which symbolized atheism and denial Moskva-Volga Canal made Moscow a and economics took a back seat. The of housing and a mighty construction buildings with small apartments and
of “life after death“, and the Mauso- port with links to five seas and solved Red Army Theatre is stellar in shape; organization, Glavmosstroy, was set up without lifts at the beginning of the
leum of Lenin, which affirmed the idea problems with the city’s water supply. its theatrical functions are “squeezed“ in order to build these designs in quick 1960s to 14-22-storey buildings with
of Lenin’s immortality. Ten new bridges were built over the into a magical mould. Detsky Mir is order. At the same time, industrial apartments “with improved layouts“ at
As Soviet rule gathered strength and River Moskva, and a river port was a children’s shop writ large in monu- capacity was built in order to manu- the end of the 1980s.
the political situation changed, the constructed. The city’s railway system mental forms. And the ring of high-rise facture house parts. This was the time Cinema became the most popular
hyper-project “New Moscow 1” – aimed was at the time one of the best in Eu- buildings erected at this time had the of the first experiments in creation form of mass recreation. In all districts
at creating an ideal capital city for the rope in terms of passenger and freight sole purpose of forming a silhouette fit of large residential districts based on of Moscow cinemas were erected – ini-
world’s proletariat and involving many capacity. By the end of the 1930s, Mo- for a capital city. Architecture served to standardization and construction of tially to standard designs, but subse-
innovations and much successful ex- scow was second only to New York for illustrate a myth about the advantages standard-type housing. quently to one-off ones. Sports struc-
perimentation in approaches to social, the power of its heating systems. Air and attainments of socialism, and to The Moscow Ring Road (MKAD), Mo- tures followed housing in becoming
economic, and architectural aspects of transport was also developing fast. form a new state version of the sacred. scow’s outer transport ring, was made objects of mass construction.
urban development – began to chan- The first airport in the Moscow Region The most impressive supersize projects the city’s new boundary, increasing the Construction of housing, shops, and
ge shape. The ideology remained the was built before World War II. In 1935 of the time were the VDNKh (Exhibi- city’s area by more than 100% - from social-services structures was finan-
same – to “build the bright future“ – the first line of the Moscow metro, the tion of the Attainments of the Peo- 356 square kilometres in 1960 to 885 ced by the state. Rents were minimal,
but it now had a different image and city’s main transport system, came in- ple’s Economy), an exhibition desig- square kilometres in 1961. Work was at about 3% of a family’s monthly in-
different means of implementation. to operation. Considerable effort was ned as a utopian city of the future; the begun on a new general plan to co- come. Prices for food, household and
put into reconstructing the road net- Moscow metro, an ideal city located ver the next 25-30 years, and this was other consumer goods, public tran-
New Moscow 2 work. Ulitsa Gor’kogo and the Sadovoe underground; and the design for the adopted in 1971. The new plan propo- sport, and pre-school childcare were
Design and construction of the ideal kol’tso in the city centre were widened; Palace of the Soviets, which was to be sed an ideal planning layout: seven zo- also minimal. Higher and intermediate
city, the “Capital of the World’s Prole- new main roads and thoroughfares a Temple to Communism of all ages nes with their own independent public education and sports activities were
tariat and of the Empire of Victorious were built; the tramline network was and nations. The latter project was ne- centres. These zones spread out from free of charge.
Socialism“, 1935-54 expanded; and trolleybus routes were ver implemented due to the war, but a central, eighth, zone like the petals Architectural design divided into two
The totalitarian idea of the “Capital constructed. it nevertheless served as a symbol of of a camomile flower. Each category categories: standard-type and one-off.
of the Empire of Victorious Socialism“, Pre-war house building was directly Moscow and the USSR over the course of area was allocated a mode of ur- Moscow and indeed the entire country
which accompanied the severe cen- linked with the reconstruction of main of many years. ban transformation and a deadline by were swamped in monotonous micro-
tralization of power that had taken roads and the creation of new em- The country’s totalitarian government which social and economic reconstruc- districts of standardized pre-fabricated
place by the middle of the 1930s, was bankments along the river. Residential believed that monumental projects of tion was to be carried out. buildings, yet there were architects
affirmed in the process of Moscow’s buildings served as façades that gave this kind would serve as material proof The principal idea for “New Moscow who heroically stuck to a creative
transformation into a monumental art the city a “beautiful face”. And even of the attainability of the utopian ide- 3” was to create a model socialist city approach in spite of the restrictions
project, a collection of ensembles in a when housing was in short supply al. “New Moscow 2” is a rare example whose every resident would be equally imposed by rigid financial restrictions
grand style. If “New Moscow 1“ invol- during the post-war crisis, construc- of the actual realization of an ideal ci- well provided with social, economic, and limited construction technology.
ved the creation of a new reality, “New tion of smart residential complexes ty. When Stalin’s personality cult was and cultural goods on the basis of Such were Aleksandr Larin with his
Moscow 2” was intended to depict and continued. The inconvenient interior debunked, the falsity of this concept scientific planning. The “multi-level Kindergarten and Chemist’s Shop and
convey through artistic means the ide- layouts of these houses were com- was revealed. It had helped to spread system of servicing“ that was adop- Mikhail Khazanov with his Workshop.
as of imperial prosperity and the might pensated for by their well-designed the imperial image of a superpower, ted at this time called for people to The unique architecture of “New Mo-
of the Soviet state. architectural form and the rich décor but at the same time had accelerated be supplied with all the institutions scow 3” stands out for the architectural
During this period the USSR demon- on their facades. Apartments in such the USSR’s housing crisis and exacer- necessary for life – schools, kindergar- achievements of democratically min-
strated to the rest of the world its aspi- buildings were given to citizens who bated the country’s social and econo- tens, polyclinics, libraries, cinemas, etc. ded Soviet Modernism. Such are the
ration to take the lead in all spheres of had performed services to the state, mic problems. – and was based on mechanical calcu- Palace of Pioneers and Schoolchildren
life. Chelyuskin made his expedition to while the bulk of the population conti- lations of the population’s aggregate on Lenin Hills, the SEB building, the
the North Pole. Chkalov flew over the nued to jostle each other in communal New Moscow 3 requirements. This gave rise to the “mi- sports complex at Krylatskoe, the New
Arctic from Russia to America. Korolev apartments and basements. Construction of the “capital of social crodistrict“ (mikrorayon) as the main MKhAT (Moscow Artistic Academic
developed a theory for conquering the Social services for the ordinary popula- justice“ through industrialization and unit of urban design. When a number Theatre), and the innovative Ostanki-
cosmos. These achievements were in- ce started to fall behind. A consequen- standardization of such microdistricts were combined, no Television Tower, which at the time
tended to serve as proof of the power ce of the Statute on the Elimination The 1950s: Khrushchev’s “thaw“ they made up a district. Districts came was the tallest in Europe. At the end
of the young Soviet state. of Private Trade (1931) was the con- Designing the “model socialist city“ together to form planning zones. of the 1970s examples of pro-Western
The New General Plan for the Recon- struction of large state grocery shops, on the basis of scientific planning There was intensive and high-quality architecture began to appear.
struction of Moscow adopted in 1935 supermarkets, and farmer’s markets. 1970s: Brezhnev’s age of “stagnation“ development of the transport infra- These included the first major admini-
called for a more than 100% increase Moscow acquired its first smart hotels Typical of the Age of Mature Socialism, structure. The radial/annular roads strative centre on Krasnopresnenska-
in the city’s physical size and for con- with fine restaurants. At the same ti- which began with the government of system was improved through the ya naberezhnaya with its atrium and
siderable growth in the number of me, though, there was a clear deficit of Nikita Khrushchev, is the idea of inte- addition of new chordal and annular shopping malls and the concave block
its inhabitants. The plan was based educational and children’s institutions grated urban planning. This involved main roads. Construction of the Mo- of the Cosmos Hotel with its conti-
on the idea of “correcting“ the city’s and small retail outlets. a new concept of urban development scow Ring Road (109 km long) kept nuous façade glazing.
original layout and turning it into an The emphasis switched once more to based on industrialization and stan- transit traffic out of the city. Moscow’s In spite of the emphasis on tackling
ideal radial/annular structure. Unlike classic varieties of recreation. Theatres dardization, policies which were inten- first tunnels and flyovers were bu- social problems and the strict financial
the radical ideas of the 1920s, the Sta- and concert halls, libraries and mu- ded to bring about equality in distri- ilt. There was rapid expansion of the and technological restrictions, buil-
linist concept of the city did not deny seums were built as “temples to cul- bution of social and economic goods. metro system, and the city’s fleets of dings designed for the sake of image,
the Moscow that actually existed at ture“. The clubs of the 1920s gave way The late 1950s and early 1960s were buses, trolleybuses, and taxis were re- to show the world the “contemporary
the time, but was embodied in speci- to Palaces of Culture with large audi- marked by remarkable events such as newed. Moscow’s eight railways were face“ of the capital of the USSR, conti-
fic monumental projects that shared a toria for holding shows and meetings. the denunciation of Stalin’s persona- united to form a single railway hub, nued to be built. A symbol of the age
“grand style“. Construction of the Pala- Physical education and sport were gi- lity cult; the removal of Stalin’s body which, with its increased passenger was the ensemble on Prospekt Kali-
ce of Soviets and of the Moscow metro; ven state backing. Parades of fitness from the Kremlin; the World Festival and freight capacity, became the lar- nina, built on the site of one of the
the creation of a new system of main enthusiasts were held on Red Square. of Young People and Students; the gest such hub in the world. There was most famous districts of old Moscow
streets to serve as the city’s façade; The Party decided to pursue industria- launch of the first manmade satellite intensive development of air transport (which was demolished to make way
and the construction of embankments lization. As development of industry of the Earth; and Yury Gagarin’s flight with the opening of Sheremet’evo, for it). Another version of representati-
and new bridges, a central park, and intensified, there was a large increase into space. Another important event Vnukovo, and Domodedovo airports. ve architecture developed at this time
district parks: all this was intended to in the total area of land used for ma- was Nikita Khrushchev’s famous sta- The city acquired hydrofoils. was Modernism in white marble with
turn Moscow into an ideal city that nufacturing, especially in eastern and tute “On Combating Superfluity in Ar- “New Moscow 3” was an unpreceden- an admixture of the Classical tradition.
would show the world the advantages south-eastern districts of the city. Fac- chitecture“. ted breakthrough in terms of volumes Examples include the Palace of Con-
Iuav : 142 4
gresses in the Kremlin and the House “reorganization“), which began in small quantities of goods which they bosses. The main cause, however, was On the “periphery“ new residential di-
of Councils of the Russian Soviet Fe- 1987, brought radical changes in poli- brought back as their personal lugga- economic. Construction technology stricts with all the attributes of a pro-
deration of Socialist Republics – which tics and state economic policy. For the ge). Such private enterprise became a in Russia at this time was extremely per urban environment will be created,
fathered the architecture of Commu- first time, people began to appreciate means of survival for many ex Soviet backward. The Soviet house-building and nature reserves will be marked out
nist Party Committee buildings in eve- the value of land. The idea of private citizens during this time of miniscule enterprises badly needed modernizing. and protected. 42% of the city’s land is
ry administrative district in Moscow, as property was affirmed and legitimised. salaries and unstoppable inflation. At There were very few alternative ways to be assigned new functions by 2020
well as the Central House of the Artist A legal framework was created for de- the same time, a gulf emerged betwe- to build; and what capacity there was – including 74 industrial zones with a
and the Olympiisky Sports Complex. velopment of a free market. After 70 en the rich and the poor, and homeless was not capable of building modern total area of 15.000 hectares, which are
The lack of any real demand for archi- years of Soviet rule and socialist living, and destitute people appeared on the architecture, which requires advanced to be reconstructed as mixed-use resi-
tecture at the end of the 1980s was the country embarked on the path of city’s streets. In the 1990s there was technology. So the design institutes, dential and public zones. Furthermore,
responsible for the rise of the alterna- capitalist development. This path, ho- rapid growth in numbers of people which had previously specialized in there are plans to radically reconstruct
tive “paper architecture“ movement. wever, was altogether different from employed in construction, retail trade, “boxes“, started rolling out undisgui- the first generations of Soviet prefabri-
The young Soviet architects associated the development of capitalism in the public catering, and finance, and a sedly eclectic architecture in the “Mo- cated housing or demolish them with
with this movement won numerous pri- West. Thanks to its population’s uni- sharp drop in those working in science scow style“. a view to building afresh.
zes at international conceptual compe- versal distrust for the idea of globali- and manufacturing. The state system of architectural de- There is an important difference
titions in Japan and Europe. A mix of sation and liberalisation of the mar- The largely speculative business of sign disintegrated. Private architectu- between the new general plan and
architectural conceptualism, philoso- ket, Russia’s quest for an identity of this period produced a new breed of ral firms, which started to appear at general plans from the Soviet era, in
phy, and graphic craftsmanship, their its own, which expressed itself in the Russian capitalist who proved a very the end of the 1980s, quickly became that this is a regulatory as opposed to
designs were a bright event on the adoption of liberal political and eco- active, but distinctive commissioner of a real force on the market. Many of merely declarative document. In the
architectural horizon during the “age nomic reforms, has taken a highly di- architecture. Lacking both culture and them began promoting the principles USSR town planning was the prero-
of stagnation“. The “paper architects“ stinctive route. 21st-century Russia is a experience of living the life of the we- of Modernism. But in spite of their he- gative of the state. Now it is part of
went on to occupy leading positions in gigantic laboratory for social, political, althy, the nouveaux riches were quick roic efforts, to which the professional a dialogue with investors and owners
architectural practice and construction. and urban-planning ideas. to load up with real estate, mostly of community reacted with enthusiasm, concerning the city’s development.
The end of the 1980s was a time of In Moscow, which continues to be a strange and alien architecture. There very few of their designs were actually This implies a switch of emphasis to
economic stagnation. The slow deve- “state within a state“ and a model to was a wave of construction of out-of- built. devising urban-planning strategies,
lopment of public transport and servi- which the rest of the country looks for town cottages and villas in eclectic, The decline of urban planning as a an approach which has long since be-
ces on the outskirts of the capital; the inspiration, all processes tend towards “antique styles“. science at this time is all too evident. en espoused by developed capitalist
mechanical approach taken to urban hypertrophy. In the 1990s Moscow to- As economic reforms legitimising the Deprived of state funding, the rese- states and which is without doubt a
planning and to implementation of ok the lead in pioneering reform and free market progressed, construction arch institutes wilted and degraded as great step forward. However, as the
resulting plans; the rapid growth in institutional transformation. The city was revived in the city itself. Now, ho- demand for their services faded. The new urban-planning policy is put into
bureaucratic and Party structures; the rapidly took on a new role as capital wever, there were radically new types federal and municipal urban-planning practice, it has become clear that it is
lack of personal responsibility; and the of capitalist Russia, now that the latter of building being built, including authorities gave up their strict super- in fact oriented on tactical as opposed
double moral standards which anima- had given up its socialist ways and em- types previously rejected by Soviet ide- visory role and started to serve as me- to strategic measures.
ted society, causing social divisions: barked on a search for its own identity. ology such as nightclubs, casinos, and re coordinators. In the middle of the The post-default stage in the forma-
all this led to stagnation. The best “Moscow 4” is the Government of private restaurants. Development was 1990s work began on a new general tion of “New Moscow 4” has been
products and foodstuffs were con- Moscow’s ambitious project to crea- especially intense in the case of archi- plan for Moscow. This was intended characterized by the appearance of
centrated in the capital, so Moscow’s te a “model 21st-century capital“. The tecture for types of business that had to take account of the character and large construction companies and
shops attracted crowds of visitors. The project is proceeding in the absence not existed under the Soviets such as consequences of the recent boom in developers which have tried to divide
so-called “sausage trains“ and queues of an overall urban-planning idea and banks and office buildings. In contrast construction and to determine a stra- the city up into spheres of influence.
for food and products in short supply under the direct influence of the de- to the characterless administrative tegy and instruments for regulating The large influx of capital from all over
were the reverse side of this socialist veloping capitalist economy, whose structures built under Soviet rule, this the boom. Russia and the unreliability of Russian
paradise based on the principles of effects are felt in all areas of architec- new architecture expressed financial The most important pieces of ur- banks have resulted in huge demand
centralization and total planning. The ture, construction, and urban-planning prosperity. Public spaces underwent a ban planning to emerge from the for real estate, which has come to be
USSR fell into a state of zastoy (“sta- regulation. qualitative regeneration. “pre-default“ period were the recon- regarded as a savings instrument and
gnation“). There have been two main stages in If “Moscow 3” involved a strikingly mo- struction of the ring road and major a means of capital growth: the price
“New Moscow 3” was a model of the the way this new capitalist economy notonous urban environment and a image-oriented projects initiated by of a square metre in Moscow today is
ideal Soviet capital based on scientific has developed: surprising lack of elementary informa- the Government of Moscow and per- one of the highest in the world, and
planning and socialist economics. It 1. early 1990s to 1998: the spread of tion, “Moscow 4” filled the city’s space sonally by the Mayor of Moscow, Yury yet 60% of apartments that have be-
was to a very large extent realized, but “wild capitalism” and the formation to the brim with small retail structures, Luzhkov. These projects were intended en bought stand empty. Commercial
proved unsustainable. Standardized of a market economy, prior to the na- advertising, and information – concen- to trumpet the birth of capitalist Rus- construction, which aims for extremely
housing was discredited by its poor tional financial default of 1998. The trated especially in the city centre and sia, revive Moscow itself, and impart high profit margins, is developing at
quality and monotonous character. De- architecture of this time reflects the on main streets. The city’s public space to it an image that would express the an incredible pace. This kind of acti-
velopment of industrial manufacturing speculative character of the economy became an aggressive carrier of adver- city’s new values. By analogy with the vity depends upon clearance of land,
proved economically unviable and led during the initial stage of accumula- tising and information and an impor- development of Paris in the 20th cen- especially in the city centre, where pri-
to a severe deterioration in ecological tion of capital; tant market sector. tury, these projects have been called ces are highest. So what we are seeing
conditions. The flipside of the demo- 2. 1998 to the present time: intensive Fundamental reform of the housing Luzhkov’s “Grand Projet“. The specula- today is continual seizure of land in
cratic nature of this architecture was development of a market economy. sector has been underway since the tive character of the economy during the centre, demolition of old buildings,
the construction of bureaucratic struc- The impact of the market economy has early 1990s, when tenants were given the first stage of accumulation of ca- and the squeezing out of old types of
tures for regional and district commit- been felt in all fields of life, but above the opportunity to become owners of pital led to the default of 1998, which, development by new buildings with
tees of the Communist Party. The fact all in architecture – which, following the apartments which they had pre- in the final analysis, provoked a new larger numbers of storeys. Developers
that all resources were centralized and the default of 1998, has turned to com- viously rented from the state. Diverse wave of urban development. devise ways to seize old residential bu-
concentrated in the capital produced mon sense and Modernist values. types of commercial housing began After the default ildings – for instance, by having them
economic and social disbalances of a Prior to the default to appear in response to specific de- Infrastructure and territorial transfor- declared “in a dangerous condition“
serious nature. The country was ready The first stage was a period of spon- mand. There was a sharp reduction in mation so that residents then have to forcibly
for perestroika. taneity and rapid development of the the proportion of construction funded Of prime importance for Moscow’s resettled in apartments in the suburbs.
free market – which swept aside the by the state. As a market in real estate development is the fact that it was re- The make-up of the population in the
New Moscow 4 old Soviet system with dramatic con- took shape, the first Russian investors cognized as an independent subject of city centre is changing. Children’s fa-
1987 to the present time sequences. Many factories went bust and developers aimed for high profits the Russian Federation with the right cilities, polyclinics, and other social
Construction of the “Model 21st-centu- or stopped production. People emplo- and quick returns on their investment. to pass its own urban-planning legi- services are being squeezed out by
ry City“ in a free-market economy yed in manufacturing and scientific Quality of architecture and construc- slation. In 1999 the city government business and commercial structures.
Moscow has become one the largest research left to work in business and tion was not a criterion for success and adopted a new general plan for Mo- Areas of green space are shrinking.
megalopolises in the world, occupying services. The system of multi-level ser- provided no stimuli for growth. In a scow for the period to 2020. This do- The city centre is being rescaled. Histo-
an area of 108˙000 hectares and with vices collapsed as cinemas, stadiums, country where the state had been the cument was drawn up as the city’s ca- rical heritage is being lost – and, along
an official population of approxima- kindergartens, and other social struc- only commissioner of architecture for pitalist economy was developing and with it, the special atmosphere of old
tely 15 million. The city has about 5 tures went bust and were seized by the last 70 years, there was no functio- construction was booming. Moscow, the qualities that made the
million private vehicles, not including private business – and especially by ning model to guide relations betwe- The most detailed part of the plan is old city so distinctive. The Moscow Go-
public transport. small retail enterprises, which filled all en architects and private clients. As the introduction of natural and histori- vernment’s concern for preserving the
Transformation of Moscow under available space including squares, me- architects lost the initiative, architec- cal conservation areas that are subject city’s historical appearance manifests
the new Russian capitalism tro entrances, underground walkways, ture found itself unable to resist “hi- to regulation of the strictest kind. The itself in replacement of old buildings
The approach of the 21st century was and other spots where the public ten- storicism“ bordering on kitsch – a style main innovation is the construction of with new ones “in the historical style“,
marked by capitalization of the old ds to gather. At the beginning of the that sold well, was what private clients the 3rd ring road, which passes through but of much larger size.
socialist system, leading to the loss of 1990s there was a predominance of wanted, and was promoted by the Go- land beside railway tracks in the 19th- And it is not just the central zone that
what had been an integrated appro- unofficial and semi-official retail busi- vernment of Moscow as the “new Mo- century industrial outskirts of the city. is undergoing radical transformation,
ach to the city and to the spontaneous ness: spontaneous markets where the scow style“ (it expressed the priorities The ring is the main transport route for but the intermediate and peripheral
growth of particular parts of Moscow, traders were “chelnoki“ (literally “shut- of the age and demonstrated “links the “intermediate zone“, in which the zones as well. What used to be a “buf-
relations between which were often tles“ – meaning individual entrepre- with the city’s historical roots“). Cri- new general plan envisages intensive fer zone“ around industrial buildings
almost unregulated. neurs who made frequent trips abro- tics attribute this phenomenon to the development as large-scale business and railway tracks is rapidly disappe-
Perestroika (the Russian word means ad, usually to Turkey or Poland, to buy personal taste of Moscow’s municipal and retail traffic are redirected here. aring under new houses. Along main
Iuav : 142 5 transport routes there is a concentra- skyscrapers“ project threatens to pro- public square which at the present “palaces“ are a mixture of sport and creating a new capital and in the way tion of middle-priced buildings for voke final paralysis of the transport time functions as a commercial exhi- entertainment. that the “Moscow style“ has been in- mass use. Reconstruction of industrial system and generate considerable bition centre. Moscow has developed As for architecture in business, office culcated in the city’s architecture. zones and residential developments technogenic risks. It is now clear why valuable expertise in converting old buildings intended for letting conti- To compensate for the paralysis of belonging to the first generation of there has been a reduction in numbers railway bridges, rendered obsolete nue to be built. Business architecture will in urban planning, “New Moscow standardized housing is in full swing. of old buildings and areas of greenery by the increased loads on them, into reflecting the “spirit of an imperial 4” is able to demonstrate a new ideo- To date, 270 hectares of industrial land and a sharp increase in ecological pro- promenades over the river. These cove- capital“ has given way to a style that logy and the sacral purity of an ideal located mainly in the intermediate zo- blems. Furthermore, the city has been red malls in the air create spectacular is more European, more in tune with capitalist city, qualities which are ex- ne have been reconstructed for mixed- “turned inside out“: its main retail ope- additional links between the banks of common sense and Modernist values. pressed through the architecture of purpose public use. Demolition of rations now take place not in the cen- the River Moskva. The architecture of Moscow’s new of- its grand projects. The remake of the more than three million square metres tre, as was the case in Soviet times, but Moscow’s public spaces have also fice buildings expresses openness to Church of Christ the Saviour – demo- of obsolete standard-type housing has along the Moscow Ring Road, where been affected by private initiatives. international dialogue. There is a ten- lished by the Bolsheviks in order to freed up land for the construction of enormous shopping complexes have Courtyard spaces and land within dency for the creation of large business clear space for the Palace of Soviets a much greater volume of residential appeared, subjecting both the ring ro- street blocks – areas that under Soviet and public centres capable of playing – was intended to flag the return to space. ad and the main routes leading out of rule belonged to no one and, being an important role in the structure of pre-Soviet spiritual values. The recrea- The “intermediate zone“ is being de- the city to additional strain. concealed behind the city’s smart the city (for example, the business cen- tion of the Church of the Icon of Our veloped as a location for mixed-use The construction of the third ring ro- façades, were accordingly neglected tre beside Kiev Station). Lady of Kazan’ and the Iverskie Gates, complexes and public centres such ad, the beginning of work on a fourth – are being developed into attracti- “New Moscow 4” is distinguished by a structures which were destroyed under as Moscow City. The idea is that the- ring, and plans for a fifth are a sign ve little courtyards containing small large variety of different types of con- the Soviets, declares the Moscow Go- se should draw traffic and pedestrian of how firmly the radial structure has shops and restaurants. The removal struction in response to demand on vernment’s official recognition of the flows away from the old city centre. taken root in Moscow’s urban plan- of factories from the city has created the market. Given that requirements Russian Orthodox Church and its tre- However, the sites chosen for these de- ning. “Linear“ tendencies suggested a need to develop old industrial buil- for different functions can change ve- atment of it as a state priority. velopments were mostly “vacant“ land by plans for the north and south la- dings and land. Investors have rushed ry quickly, developers try to make their The complex on Poklonnaya gora ex- which had no utilities connections and teral roads are clearly secondary. The in to either reconstruct these buildings buildings multifunctional and flexible. presses patriotism, the greatness of was lacking in potential to shape the plans currently being discussed for a or simply demolish them so as to erect We are now seeing buildings that are those who defended the fatherland, city’s structure. This potential should new concrete road, a fifth ring linking new structures in their place. The most mutations on traditional types; the- and the immortality of those who died be improved by the investments cur- Moscow’s main satellite towns, mark interesting reconstruction projects ha- se cover a large variety of functions for it. The complex includes an Ortho- rently being made. Nevertheless, the the potential expansion of the city li- ve involved the creation of art spaces in order to “hang on to clients“. The dox church and a mosque. The monu- desirability of these areas remains mits in the distant future. In fact, such in old factories (Art-Play, GTSSI, Fabri- dominance of the hypertrophied com- ment to Marshal Zhukov is an example questionable even with regard to the expansion is all the more likely since ka, VinZavod). mercial sector is felt only too clearly, of patriotic monumental propaganda. future, at least when compared with there is a clear tendency for Moscow Parallel to these tendencies, types of as is the tendency for the municipal The Okhotny ryad shopping centre is a locations in the old city centre. to merge with the countryside around building have continued to mutate. At and commercial sectors to merge in clear representation of the new ideal The periphery is busy with the con- it. Moscow Region is being urbanized the present moment, the busiest are- the creation of large residential and of capitalist prosperity. The part of the struction of large residential districts at an incredible pace, having recently as are commercial construction and, public complexes that are used on a centre which is above ground on Ma- such as Butovo, Mitino, Mar’insky become an independent subject of the above all, housing. There is a clear commercial basis. nezhnaya ploshchad’ is a folk specta- park, and Kurkino. These districts are Russian Federation with the ability to tendency for residential buildings to Modelling the ideal city in a capita- cle consisting of monumental bronze designed as ideal microcities with a pass its own urban-planning legisla- grow in size, forming enormous com- list world shapes – a populist version of the “ca- clear hierarchy of quality of housing. tion. In satellite towns and areas close plexes with developed services struc- Creation of ideal urban-planning mo- pital city with rich historical traditions They are experiments in combining the to Moscow huge quantities of land are tures. These are “cities within a city“ dels in a market economy would be and a human face“. not readily compatible categories of being sold for commercial use. Pre- (e.g. Aerobus and the complex on senseless. There is a lack of both gua- Zurab Tseretelli’s monument to Peter townhouse, elite housing, and social viously, the Moscow countryside was Mosfilmovskaya ulitsa). At the same rantees and real instruments for put- I puts across the idea of heroically housing. The periphery is also a popu- protected as a “buffer zone of forest time, a number of private one-family ting such models into practice. Howe- strong state authority. lar location for buildings belonging to and parks“, but now it is losing its villas have been built in the city cen- ver, the Russian mentality is such that There are many signs indicating at- businesses with offices in the centre, areas of nature fast. This process is a tre (Villa Ostozhenka, Dom Yaytso, the it finds it impossible to renounce the tempts to revive the ideals of the em- sports and recreational structures, and severe problem for Moscow, given that Egg House), something which would quest for the ideal. “New Moscow 4” is pire. These include the reconstruction manufacturing enterprises that have over the course of the 20th century the have been impossible under Soviet ru- an example of how ideals have migra- of the Moskva Hotel – whose imperial remained within the city limits. Ano- city’s development was closely linked le. Townhouses and guarded commu- ted from urban-planning policy to ima- appearance is to be preserved while ther feature of this area of the city is with Moscow Region, which Moscow nities in green areas of the city with ge-focused architecture for the “model its interior is stuffed with a capitalist cheap markets selling food, building regarded as an important ecological a well developed infrastructure (Tata- 21st century capital“. This, of course, filling; the reconstruction of the Large materials, and consumer goods. These filter and reserve of land. rovskaya poyma, Serebryan’y bor) are cannot but remind us of the grand ar- Kremlin Palace, whose state rooms intercept shoppers coming into Mo- Transformation in types of public gaining in popularity. There is much tistic project that was “New Moscow have been completely renovated; and scow from outside to do their shop- urban space and in construction of demand for expensive, superior-quali- 2”, a piece of urban planning which the recreational and palace complex at ping. The lead taken by the markets residential and public buildings ty club-type housing – buildings with showed the world how utopia may be Tsaritsyno. was rapidly followed by retail traders. Systematic development of Moscow’s only a small number of apartments embodied in a grand style. But what At the same time special mention The big chains began building large public spaces is not only adapting and high construction costs (Cooper happens for the first time as tragedy should be made of the new business hypermarkets, while individual deve- the city to market conditions, but al- House, the House in Molochny pereu- tends, as we well know, to repeat itself district at Moscow City. This image- lopers erected shopping centres. Such so stimulating its development. The lok, the House on Zubovsky). as farce. In a market economy social oriented project would have had little developments include Metro, Ikea, Moscow authorities are trying to ma- Construction of public buildings has and artistic utopias become distorted chance of being built in any other ca- Ashan, Mega, and Evropark; these ha- ke the city more attractive by creating also been intense and subject to di- and sometimes take on cynical forms. pitalist country. The choice of location, ve provoked large influxes of shoppers pedestrian areas and new squares, versification. At the same time, there Today we may identify in Moscow at cut off from utilities systems and requi- from all over the city. improving the condition of parks, and has been an appreciable reduction in least three parties who are intent on ring colossal investment in creation of This intensive urban development has setting up monuments and fountains. the proportion of state-funded buil- creating an ideal city or parts of such a proper infrastructure, seems econo- led to colossal traffic problems. The Stoleshnikov and Kamergersky lanes dings being built. Their place has been a city: mically unjustified in view of the avai- reconstruction of the Moscow Ring are busy streets right in the middle of taken by new private schools, com- – the Moscow Government, which ba- lability of many other sites with superb Road; construction of the third ring Moscow that have been turned into mercial medical clinics, fitness clubs, ses its architectural policy on the idea investment potential. However, the road and of tunnels and multi-level pedestrian and shopping areas. Ho- fee-paying kindergartens and crèches, of building a “model capital city for area’s proximity to the city centre and intersections; and the laying of many wever, following the replacement of etc. In construction of retail buildings the 21st century“. This is a policy which lack of historical buildings were strong kilometres of new metro lines: none of the popular shops that used to occupy there has been a clear switch from has been conducted consistently from factors in favour of its suitability as a this has made the situation any less these streets with expensive bouti- markets and small retail outlets to the beginning of the post-Soviet pe- new business capital with a European critical. ques, Muscovites’ interest in the area, large supermarkets, chain stores, and riod and is aimed at creating a new face. It is hardly surprising, then, that The principal transformation of Mo- which was a favourite back in Soviet mega-malls. Shopping centres have image for Moscow; well-known foreign architects and con- scow’s land has been its hyper-satu- times, has declined. Reconstruction of acquired secondary functions such – private investors, who refer to ide- struction companies are working here. ration with new, predominantly com- Moscow’s old places of recreation such as entertainments and catering. The- al beauty in a bid to create attractive Norman Foster’s Russia Tower, which mercial buildings. Insular enclaves of as the Ermitazh Garden, the Aquarium re are now gigantic complexes where commercial images; will be the tallest skyscraper in Europe, so-called “elite housing“ have simply Garden, and Chistoprudny bul’var has shoppers can spend the whole day and – architects in the opposition camp, is expected to become a sign of pro- plugged into the old transport infra- led to the loss of authentic furnishings buy almost anything they want. who create independent models of gress and of the authority enjoyed by structure, which has long since strug- and the appearance of eclectic new New leisure facilities are mainly priva- ideal architecture as markers for pro- “New Moscow 4” on the international gled to cope with the dramatically ones “in the historical style“, a reduc- tely built. They include casinos, private fessional brands. arena. Construction of the tower is to increased load. State-funded plans tion in areas of greenery, and the di- restaurants and clubs, dance floors, The Moscow Government sets deve- commence in the near future. for road building have failed to take sappearance of the unique aura which etc. There is a clear tendency for lei- lopment strategy and shapes the city’s The recently much discussed project account of the rapid development had formed in these places over time. sure and business (especially, the re- urban planning and architecture. All for a ring of skyscrapers is also an ex- of more and more new plots of land. There have been a number of intere- tail trade) to merge with one another: important – or, at any rate, conspi- pression of Muscovite ambition, which The result is collapse of the transport sting projects involving the creation of shopping is becoming a way of pas- cuous – structures in the city have to here coincides with commercial inte- system. The tendency for the city to new types of covered public space – sing the time and a part of the tourism be approved at the design stage by rests. For as long as the infrastructure, develop vertically with ever higher something badly needed in view of the and entertainments businesses. Sports the Urban-planning Council, which is including roads, needed to use and buildings being financed by ever in- Moscow climate. Gostiny dvor, which is facilities are developing in the same presided over by the Mayor. Official ar- service the skyscrapers is lacking, there creasing investment only exacerbates a federal monument, has been covered way. Fitness centres, golf courses, figh- chitectural policy is at its most evident doesn’t seem to be much sense in bu- the situation. Specifically, the “ring of with a glass roof to create a covered ting clubs, and new stadiums and ice in Luzhkov’s “grand projects“ aimed at ilding them. Nevertheless, the project
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